Chapter 11 - Sexuality
Chapter Outline
Sexuality as and adolescent issue
increase in sex drive, reproductive viability, development of secondary sex characteristics
main influences on adolescents' sexual behavior are social, not biological
challenges: become comfortable with one's body, accept feelings of sexual arousal as normal, becoming comfortable choosing to be sexual or not, understanding and practicing safe sex
How sexually permissive is contemporary society?
sexual socialization - how adolescents are exposed to and educated about sexuality
Ruth Benedict observed that anxiety over sex is absent in many traditional cultures - unlike U.S.
Margaret Mead's studies of adolescence in Samoa and New Guinea also depicted calm sexual development
where sexual experimentation is treated casually, it does not cause anxiety
Ford and Beach (1951) catalogued sexual socialization in over 200 societies
Sexual socialization of restrictive societies
transition into sexual activity is discontinuous - children do not engage in sex - formal rite of passage
Sexual socialization in semirestrictive societies
attitudes toward premarital sexual activity are formally prohibited by not enforced
America is basically restrictive or semirestrictive (CB)
children are punished for sexual activity, masturbation, laws against viewing sex on TV
BUT - America is semirestrictive in allowing adolescents to be alone together, and premarital sex is not publicly punished
Sexual socialization in permissive societies
children engage in sex, open discussion and practice
Polynesia, Trobriand children, "play sex", Scandinavians
Sexual attitudes among adolescents
society became more liberal in the 1960's and 1970's
most do not favor promiscuity or exploitation
the majority of adolescents believe that openness, honesty, and fidelity are important
serial monogamy - one partner after another
decline in popularity of the double standard - it is not OK for guys and not for girls
Sexual activity during adolescence
Stages of sexual activity
the stages of progression of sexual activity include autoerotic behavior, or fantasies about someone like a TV star, masturbation (1/2 of all adolescent boys and 1/4 of adolescent girls), necking and petting, genital contact or intercourse, oral sex
although oral sex has been occuring earlier in the last decade, perhaps influenced by the AIDS scare
not surprisingly, many girls begin masturbating in 7th grade and boys in 9th grade
sociosexual behavior, or sexual behavior with another person, has occurred by the time most adolescents have reached 9th grade
Sexual intercourse during adolescence
occurs earlier in some contexts and groups
economically disadvantaged of all races have sex earlier
although African-American youth have sex earlier, they have sex less often than other sexually active adolescents - pregnancy?
by age 15, 1/3 of males and 1/4 of females have
had intercourse
by age 19, 86% of males and 80% of females have
had intercourse
rates for white females has increases the most over the past 20 years
Changes in patterns of adolescent sexual intercourse over time
% of HS students who have had intercourse has increased since the 1960s
Psychological and social characteristics of sexually active adolescents
sexual activity during adolescence is NOT associated with psychological problems
self-esteem and life satisfaction are similar
early sexual intercourse (before age 16) is associated with drug experimentation, low religious involvement, tolerance of deviant behaviors, low academic interest, and higher orientation toward independence
research does NOT support the idea that vigilant monitoring by parents and open communication with parents has a strong impact on adolescent sexual behavior
Communication with mothers is associated with less sexual activity, but communication with fathers is associated with more
girls in families divorcing or single parent homes are more likely to engage in sex
males' parents may not try to exert as much control whether one parent home or two - less of an effect of one parent home
teens also more likely to be sexually active when they believe their peers are, and when they have older siblings
peer influences greater for females than males
teens who watch a lot of sexually oriented TV are more likely to be sexually active (chicken or egg?)
Sex differences in the meaning of sex
experience with masturbation generally gives males an edge in knowing how to be aroused when sexual activity is engaged in with another - males' first experience is outside of a context of an interpersonal context
males often keep sex and intimacy separate - socialized to "score"
males' loss of virginity has no impact on his feelings of affection in a relationship
sexual scripts are typically different for males and females
males are likely to feel excited, satisfied by first sexual intercourse
females more likely to feel afraid, guilty, worried
nearly 2/3 of young women have sex with their first partner many times thereafter
early sexual experience nearly always emotional for the female
The scientific study of adolescence: Risk factors for sexual activity
Small & Luster: risk factors for sexual activity: alcohol use, school performance, having a steady partner, parental values, self-esteem
The sexes: The influences of hormones and friends on adolescent sexual behavior
initial interest in sex is influenced by testosterone in both sexes - teens with higher levels engage in fantasy and masturbate more than others -
high androgen levels in males directly linked to sexual activity - although this was also influenced by popularity with girls
social factors seem to be far more important than hormones in girls' sexual activity - girls with sexually permissive attitudes and friends who are sexually active are much more likely to engage in intercourse
Homosexuality during adolescence
sexual orientation is not the same as sex-role behavior, or gender identity
homosexuality is not considered psychopathology, nor warranting treatment - treatment does not affect sexual orientation
Kinsey's data 1984 indicated that 20% of adolescent boys by age 16 had engaged in climactic homosexual activity - may not be true (bad data)
sexual preference (orientation), sex-role behavior, gender identity
no connection between sexual orientation and sex-role behavior (e.g., gay males can be "feminine" or not)
nearly twice as many bisexuals as exclusive homosexuals
prenatal hormonal influences; some evidence of stronger similarity between identical twins
more likely to describe their fathers as distant and rejecting - men more likely than non-gay men to report close and positive relations with mother, lesbians more likely than heterosexuals to describe their mothers as cold and distant - only about half describe relationships as negative
but parents may be "rejecting" of children who do not conform to stereotypical gender roles
nonconformity with gender roles during childhood is an important predictor of adult homosexuality
Sexual harassment, rape, and sexual abuse during adolescence
recent research shows harassment is widespread in schools - 80% of girls, 60% of boys have been harassed (middle & secondary schools)
10% of white females, and 5% of black females report having been forced to have sex before age 18
this is clearly an underestimate
Hogue reports that 10% of females experiences incest before age 16
Contraceptive use
older teens are more likely to use birth control, and planned sex more likely involves birth control
many teens do not use birth control because that would be admitting (especially for girls, who are the ones most likely to use birth control the pill) - that they are sexually active
teens with high levels of guilt are less likely to have sex but less likely to use protection when they do have sex
Erotophobes vs Erotophiles
some feel so afraid or guilty about sex they don't plan for protection - higher likelihood of unwanted pregnancy
some are so sexually active they have a higher likelihood of receiving a STD
American teens less likely to use contraception regularly and effectively
AIDS and other sexually-transmitted infections
gonorrhea, chlamydia, herpes, HPV (warts), AIDS
Teenage pregnancy and childbearing
The nature and extent of the problem
the actual birth rate is lower today than in previous eras
proportion that occur out of wedlock is much higher today
white and middle class girls more likely to abort their pregnancy
54% of births to white teens are to single mother
90% of births to black teens are to single mothers 1991
Contributing factors
non-effective contraceptive use
research indicates no lasting adverse effects on the mother of having an abortion
The role of the father
teen fathers more likely to have academic, work, law problems
Consequences for mother and child
poverty and single parenthood, not the mother's age, contribute most to the negative consequences for children born to teenage mothers
although adolescent mothers interact with their infants less often in beneficial ways
adolescent childbearing contributes to a vicious cycle of welfare dependency
but teenage mothers who complete HS and delay further childbearing are much better off than others
Teenage pregnancy prevention and intervention programs
school based education and health clinics have an effect
getting married may put the teenage mother at risk for having another child soon
and teenage marriages are likely to end in
divorce
Important Terms, Concepts and Individuals
The following terms are listed as they appear in the chapter:
sexual socialization sex-role behavior
restrictive societies gender identity
semi-restrictive societies date rape
permissive societies sexually transmitted infections
serial monogamy gonorrhea
double standard chlamydia
sexual promiscuity herpes
autoerotic behavior human papilloma virus
noctural orgasms AIDS
sociosexual behavior HIV
risk factor sexual preference
human ecology testosterone
Study Questions
1. How is sexuality an adolescent issue?
2. What are the four developmental challenges concerning sexuality in adolescence?
3. What are the different types of societies in regard to sexual socialization?
4. Where does contemporary American society fit in this categorization? Why?
5. How have American adolescent’s attitudes toward sex changed in the last 30 years?
6. Are American adolescents sexually promiscuous? Explain.
7. What are the stages of sexual activity (Note racial difference)?
8. What are the current patterns of sexual intercourse among young adolescents (Note racial and regional difference)?
9. Are there age differences in inititation into sexual intercourse among racial and ethnic groups? Explain.
10. How frequently do sexually active teenagers have sexual intercourse?
11. How have patterns of sexual intercourse changed among American adolescents in the last 30 years?
12. Is sexual activity during adolescence associated with psychological disturbance or problems? Explain.
13. Do adolescents who become sexually active earlier have different family histories?
14. How do peer’s sexual behavior influence sexual behavior in other adolescents?
15. Are there gender differences in the meaning of sex? Describe.
16. What are some of the risk factors for sexual activity in adolescence?
17. How are sexual preference, sex-role behavior and gender identity related?
18. What are the role of biological influences and environmental influences in the development of homosexuality?
19. What percent of young people have been sexually victimized?
20. What are some of the outcomes of sexual victimization?
21. How effective are American adolescents as contraceptors?
22. What are the most popular forms of contraception among American adolescents?
23. Why is contraceptive use so poor among American adolescents?
24. How much of a problem is adolescent pregnancy in the United States?
25. What are sex education programs like in the United States?
26. What are STI's? Give a few examples.
27. How much of a threat is AIDS among the adolescent population of the United States?
28. How has the context of teenage child bearing changed in this country over the last 30 to 40 years?
29. Do young women who have abortions suffer serious psychological impairment from the experience?
30. What is the impact of teenage childbearing on the mom, the dad and the baby? Describe.
31. What strategies have been used to prevent adolescent pregnancy? Which ones have failed? Which ones have been successful?
Multiple Choice Questions - Please circle the correct answer.
1. Societies that forbid sexual activity among the young until a rite
of passage has been achieved are called:
a. anti-permissive societies
b. repressed societies
c. restrictive societies
d. non-sexual societies
2. The way that sexual socialization is carried out in contemporary
American culture is best categorized as:
a. restrictive
b. repressed
c. semi-restrictive
d. permissive
3. The sexual attitudes and behavior of American adolescents are best
described as:
a. sexual promiscuity
b. serial monogamy
c. autoerotic sexuality
d. sexual exploitation
4. By age 15, ___ percent of males and ___ percent of females in the
United States have experienced sexual intercourse.
a. 10; 5
b. 20; 10
c. 33; 25
d. 50; 33
5. Which adolescent is most likely to engage in early sexual activity?
a. African American adolescent
b. White adolescent
c. Hispanic adolescent
d. Asian American adolescent
6. The median age at first intercourse has _____ over the last 30 years.
a. remained the same
b. increased
c. decreased
d. been difficult to measure
7. By high school graduation approximately ____ percent of American
young people have experienced sexual intercourse.
a. 20
b. 33
c. 50
d. 75
8. Sexually active young people have been found to be more likely than
nonsexually active adolescents to be associated with:
a. lower interest in academic achievement
b. lower self-esteem and self-efficacy
c. lower psychological adjustment
d. lower involvement in drugs and alcohol
9. Gender identity refers to:
a. the extent to which an individual behaves in traditionally
"masculine" or "feminine" ways;
b. which gender an individual psychologically believes he or
she is;
c. the extent to which someone prefers heterosexual activity,
homosexual activity or both;
d. none of the above.
10. A recent study of a nationally representative sample of middle and
high school youngsters found that over ____ percent of the female
students had received unwanted sexual attention while in school.
a. 20
b. 40
c. 60
d. 80
11. The most popular form of contraceptive among American adolescents
is:
a. the condom
b. the birth control pill
c. the IUD
d. the diaphragm
12. Individuals who feel guilty about having sex are ____ likely than
individuals that don't feel guilty about having sex to use contraception.
a. equally
b. less
c. more
d. much more
13. Which country has the highest rate of adolescent pregnancy?
a. Hungary
b. Sweden
c. Czechloslovakia
d. United States
14. Which sexually transmitted infection is caused by a bacterium?
a. Herpes
b. AIDS
c. Human papilloma
d. Chlamydia
15. What percent of American female adolescents experience pregnancy
by the age of 18?
a. 10
b. 25
c. 33
d. 50
16. Which adolescent is more likely to choose abortion to terminate
a pregnancy?
a. Lower-class African American female
b. Middle-class African American female
c. Lower-class White female
d. Middle-class White female
17. Teenage fatherhood is most acceptable within which community?
a. African American
b. White
c. Hispanic
d. Asian American
18. One of the main reasons why children of adolescent mothers fare
worse than children of older mothers is:
a. mother's age
b. mother's psychological immaturity
c. mother's social and economic status
d. mother's cognitive skills
19. Which sexual education strategy has been the most successful in
preventing adolescent pregnancy?
a. Sexual education programs that focus on the biology of sex
b. Sexual education programs that encourage abstinence
c. Sexual education programs coupled with a school-based clinic
d. Sexual education programs that involve both parents and children
20. Which social scientist observed and recorded the sexual development
of young people in Samoa and New Guinea?
a. Laurence Steinberg
b. Gerald Ford
c. Margaret Mead
d. Ruth Benedict
21. The majority of teenagers who have had sexual intercourse have had
____ partner(s).
a. one
b. two to three
c. four or more
d. six or more
22. What type of familial communication about sexual activity has been
associated with less sexual activity on the part of the adolescent
involved?
a. Mother-adolescent communication
b. Father-adolescent communication
c. Sibling-adolescent communication
d. Grandparent-adolescent communication
23. Which of the following did Small and Luster find to be an important
risk factor for sexual activity in adolescence?
a. Being worried about one's future occupational chances
b. Reporting low self-worth
c. Having access to school-based sexual education
d. Reporting frequent family discussions about sex
24. Sexual victimization is most likely to involve which adolescent?
a. Lower-class female adolescent
b. Middle-class female adolescent
c. Lower-class male adolescent
d. Middle-class male adolescent
25. An example of a permissive society in regard to sexuality is:
a. the United States
b. England
c. Trobriand Islands
d. Japan
True/False Questions - Mark each statement either True (T) or False (F).
1. The United States is a restrictive society in regard to sexual socialization.
2. Margaret Mead felt that the sexual socialization of young people in the United States is discontinuous.
3. American adolescents tend to believe that sexual relationships should be characterized by monogamy and emotional commitment.
4. Female adolescents are more likely than male adolescents to engage in autoerotic behaviors.
5. Among adolescents, oral sex is more common than sexual intercourse.
6. By age 13, close to half of African American males have experienced sexual intercourse.
7. The median age for first intercourse for American adolescents is 14.
8. The proportion of female college students who have experienced sexual intercourse has increased by greater than 300 percent since 1965.
9. Young people who are sexually active have lower self-esteem than young people who are not sexually active.
10. Early sexual activity has been linked with a tendency toward experimentation with drugs and alcohol.
11. The sexual involvement of female adolescents is influenced by household composition.
12. Female adolescents are more likely than male adolescents to think about sexual relationships in terms of achievement and competition.
13. There is considerable overlap between an individual's sexual preference and gender identity.
14. Homosexuality is primarily determined by biological factors.
15. Lesbian women are more likely than heterosexual females to report difficulties with their mother.
16. Adolescents are sexually abused at a rate greater than younger children.
17. Victims of sexual abuse have higher rates of low self-esteem and academic difficulties than adolescents who have not been sexually abused.
18. Close to 20 percent of sexually active adolescents surveyed report that they never use contraception.
19. The diaphragm is a popular method of birth control among adolescents.
20. Contraceptive use is positively related to adolescent age.
21. Teenagers in the United States are more sexually active than teenagers in the Netherlands.
22. About 25 percent of American teenagers contract a sexually transmitted infection before graduation from high school.
23. About 45 percent of females in the United States become pregnant by the age of 21.
24. Research indicates that marriage typically improves the circumstances of adolescent mothers and their children.
25. Adoption of an unplanned child tends to be an option used equally by adolescent females from all social and economic classes.
26. Most adolescent mothers become pregnant because they want a baby.
27. Men who impregnate adolescent women are more likely to be in their 20s than be teenagers themselves.
28. The developmental difficulties that tend to be apparent in children of adolescent mothers are usually due to the age of the mother.
29. Sexual education programs that emphasize abstinence have been found to be effective in reducing adolescent pregnancy.
30. Social support is a key ingredient in helping adolescent mothers
cope with parenting.
Matching Questions - Choose the term that most accurately fits the description.
___ 1. an individual or environmental a. sexual socialization
hazard that increases a person's b. restrictive societies
vulnerability to a negative outcome c. semi-restrictive societies
___ 2. societies where young people are d. permissive societies
forbidden from engaging in sexual e. serial monogamy
activity until a rite of passage has f. sexual promiscuity
taken place g. autoerotic behavior
___ 3. when a young person is forced by h. nocturnal orgasms
a partner to have sex against their i. sociosexual behaviors
will j. risk factor
___ 4. a branch of social science that is k. human ecology
devoted to studying development l. sexual preference
in context m. sex-role behavior
___ 5. Acquired Immune Deficiency n. gender identity
Syndrome o. date rape
___ 6. societies where children and p. sexually transmitted
infections
adolescents are allowed to engage q. gonorrhea
in sex play, and where sexual r. human papilloma virus
activity among the young is s. AIDS
acceptable t. HIV
___ 7. sexual behavior that is characterized
by multiple partners during the same
time period with very little emotional
involvement or attachment to these
partners
___ 8. wet dreams
___ 9. a type of sexually transmitted
infection that is caused by a virus
___ 10. the extent to which someone prefers
heterosexual activity, homosexual
activity or both
___ 11. sexual behavior that is experienced
alone
___ 12. viruses, bacteria or parasites that
are transmitted through sexual
contact
___ 13. a series of monogamous sexual
relationships over a period of time
___ 14. the extent to which an individual
behaves in traditionally "masculine"
or "feminine" ways
___ 15. the process by which children and
adolescents are exposed to and learn
about sexuality
___ 16. societies where formal prohibition
against the young engaging in sexual
activity are not taken seriously
___ 17. which gender an individual psychologically
believes he or she is
___ 18. human immunodeficiency virus
___ 19. sexual behaviors involving another person
___ 20. a sexually transmitted infection caused by a bacterium
Answer Key
Multiple Choice Questions
1. c 11. b 21. a
2. c 12. b 22. a
3. b 13. d 23. a
4. c 14. d 24. a
5. a 15. b 25. c
6. c 16. d
7. c 17. a
8. a 18. c
9. b 19. c
10. d 20. c
True/False Questions
1. F 11. T 21. F
2. T 12. F 22. T
3. T 13. F 23. T
4. F 14. F 24. F
5. T 15. T 25. F
6. T 16. T 26. F
7. F 17. T 27. T
8. T 18. T 28. F
9. F 19. F 29. F
10. T 20. T 30. T
Matching Questions
1. j 11. g
2. b 12. p
3. o 13. e
4. k 14. m
5. s 15. a
6. d 16. c
7. f 17. n
8. h 18. t
9. r 19. i
10. l 20. q